Discuss the success of UK supermarkets. Should supermarkets promote Essay

Discuss the success of UK supermarkets. Should supermarkets promote healthy eating - Essay Example Supermarkets are typically supplied by distribution centers of their parent companies in the areas largest city. Supermarkets sell products at a low price by decreasing their economic margin. In early days, retail products were fetched by an assistant and pass them to the customer for payment. This process proved to be tiresome, tedious, ineffective, and unsatisfying to customer needs. With these many advantages, this essay discusses the success of UK supermarkets, emphasizing on the fact that supermarkets should promote health feeding (Cheverton, 2004:34). Currently, United Kingdom supermarkets have accomplished a milestone in growth and development. Many supermarkets have taken an interest in showcasing advances that have already been taken in growth and development. Some companies have digitalized supermarkets development in United Kingdom. The coverage ranges right from construction stage to a full operative supermarket (Henry, 2008:61). For instance, Sainsbury unveiled its website aimed at its St Johns development in Worcester. This site had detailed information about the supermarket project including, store details, new jobs opportunities offered at the supermarket, information about community benefits and coming live webcam. Supermarkets are coming under more pressure in promoting healthy eating and providing customers with information of what is bad or what is good with about their products on their shelves. Some supermarkets are taking it further by providing their own diet program programs. Some others provide some healthy eating advice in their websites. Sainsbury’s categorically tackles what a healthy diet is. They give a definition that, when it comes to healthy eating, the important thing to remember is that there are no bad and good foods. A food substance here and there is just not going to harm anyone if

Bioprocessing and industrial Biotechnology Essay

Bioprocessing and industrial Biotechnology - Essay Example gies that are producing high yields of protein can be used as the key for the large scale production and the strategies involved in the production can be monitored for the efficient production of the recombinant proteins. The majority of the therapeutic proteins are produced using the mammalian cell culture system and by using the microbial systems. The mammalian cell culture systems usage for the large scale production involves very huge investments and hence the use of microbial systems is more preferred. The most common bacteria that are used for these production strategies are the Escherichia coli. E.coli was the first heterologous host to be used for the production of recombinant human DNA based material. (Gellissen 2005). Insulin is a hormone secreted by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans of pancreas. It is essential for oxidation and utilization of blood sugar and maintenance of proper blood sugar level. In the healthy individuals insulin is normally secreted in the body continuously to maintain the glucose concentration as normal in the body. Insulin secretion usually increases after a meal in the body and the peak concentration is achieved within an hour. It also falls down to the normal level with in two hours. The normal plasma concentration of insulin is approximately 10 ^ -9 mol / l. the half life of insulin is only a few minutes. At the normal concentration, insulin is present as a mixture of monomer, dimer, tetramer, and zinc-insulin hexamer. These solutions of insulin are found to have a long lasting action and hence the insulin is produced as solutions only. Inadequate secretion of insulin leads to hyperglycemia (higher blood sugar level). This condition is said to be diabetics. In sulin reduces the blood sugar level and promotes glycogen metabolism in liver and muscles. It also reduces the breakdown of cellular proteins. Further it increases the resistance towards infectious diseases. The treatment of diabetics by treating insulin is

Gender and Language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Gender and Language - Essay Example The farmer did get his drink but with an enormous lecture on the benefits of self-help. Is there a meeting point where members of the opposite sex could meet and communicate intelligibly There is the possibility. However, the possibility could come with a heavy rejoinder. The woman may ask for complete modification before seeing the set. The problem does not lie with the woman or the man. The problem is the age-old communication that has different people saying different things but understanding little. The man hardly will say anything. The woman has said all she wanted and also ensured that the cake remain with her. The husband, a listless individual, said little or nothing and scarcely knew the cake that existed. The problem is not with the man who does not talk or the wife who has not only told her version but included her husband's as well. The problem is in understanding the genders. Man is made to say something or nothing. Woman, on the other hand, is made to talk her head off. It does not matter if the man is not listening. Women are primarily different from men. You can have a bunch of women all talking together. You would not know who is talking and who is listening. But the conversation goes ahead in full blast and nobody is tired. This is because women are attuned to each other in such a way that makes listening easier. Women are also more thorough and systematic. ... A woman will dive deep within the ocean to explore the seabed. The man will hardly scour the surface if he finds nothing of value in the ocean. Language By and large, women are soft spoken and observant. Comparatively, men are brash and may not even know what they are talking about. Consider this: Woman (to her child): Honey, did you have breakfast Child: No mum, not yet. Woman: What would you like to have Scrambled eggs or cheese sandwich Child: Cheese sandwich Woman: I will have it ready by the time you finish your bath Now let us have a man talk to the same child. Man: Good morning! Child: Good morning, dad! Man: Have you had breakfast Child: No! The conversation stops. The man knows the breakfast will be served by the child's mother. He does not bother carrying on with the conversation. Now let us go to a more aggressive scenario. This concerns a wife-beater and the victim. The victim is in a more advantageous position because her conscience is clear. Because her conscience is clear she is in better position to think and speak clearly. The wife-beater normally lacks sense and is laden with guilt. The victim has the option to face off. The wife-beater has no such option. In this scenario who is better of Is it the wife-beater or the victim Under the gaze of a third person, the wife is better of. The man will crouch for safety if his actions come under the glare of a third person. Gender and Language If seen in the right perspective, gender and language form fluent, complementary roles between the opposite sexes. It shows the man as the strong and caring personality as against the slender and dependent role of the woman. It is quite natural for man to be strong and supportive and for the woman to be

Communication and Information Technology Essay Example for Free

Communication and Information Technology Essay Technological advancement have improved and eased the communication process. With the world revolving around technology, almost all tasks have been simplified consequently reducing the number of hours that one can perform a certain task. It has helped in the organizing information, thus enabling access and retrieval of information easy. The use of technology has helped many organizations cut on costs at the same time increasing efficiency and promptness in service delivery. In the medical arena, most of the up to the standard hospitals or healthcare systems have adopted the use of technology in delivering of their services. This has brought about comfortably and the feeling of appreciation to the patient or the person who is being served as it gives an aura of value for money and the sense of embrace of technology in this technological era. Electronic Medical Records is one of these technologies (Kluge, 2001). With the capacity to hold limitless information and being able to be changed to fit the current need, this technology has helped in the healthcare practitioners to deliver services in a more organized manner and without having delays as compared to if everything was done manually. Consequentially, this reduces costs and improves the picture of the organization at the same time fostering monitoring ability of the organization of the number of clients visiting the healthcare facility. Electronic Medical Record is computerized kind of information keeping in which information is compressed as it is converted in a digital format. This allows for consumption of minimal space while keeping the office of operation clean, tidy and attractive (Fins, 2008). This creation of space enables the expansion of services offered in the healthcare facility as there is more space of operation. Access of information becomes easy and convenient thus increasing the morale of the staff in service delivery. It offsets the possibility of committing unnecessary mistakes while delivering services because of handwritten records which are not legible. This program makes it possible transfer information from one healthcare system to another thus making it possible to treat patients in the shortest time possible as their medical records are delivered in the shortest time possible electronically. By use of this technology, it is possible for parents to monitor their kids’ wellbeing without having extra cost of travelling to where they are to check on their progress. It also makes it possible for patients to assess their medical record and also get their results without much problem of waiting till they are given to them manually. Other electronic communication delivery services like the use of voice over have helped in the reduction of the amount of work that one does in calling patients manually so that they can be attended to. It is just a simple task of just announcing a patients name and they go to the corresponding room in which they will be served. This has increased efficiency and effectiveness in serving clients (Fins, 2008). This sets a kind of an order which they patients follow and allowing for easy dissemination of information, loud enough for everyone to hear, thus, patients do not have to suffer the discomfiture of not having heard their names being mentioned by a caller physically since this system is fitted with speakers loud enough to be heard clearly. Other technologies like the Practice management software ensure the smooth running of the healthcare system giving medical practitioners a humble time in their operations on a daily basis. This wads off possibilities of confusion and lets them (medical practitioners) operate in an orderly manner. The information which this software can handle is all inclusive and does not only include the client’s bio data but also other aspects of the healthcare organization like bills and transactions going on. (Klug, 2001) It works just the same way as the EMR only that it comprises of the management aspect of healthcare system in its daily operations. Apart from keeping a track on patients’ conditions and appointments, the system is used to develop bills and keep a record on the same so that thee reports can be used whenever need arises. It keeps every transaction and activity on record so that it becomes possible for any practitioner to know what was done the previous day and by who, which patient was attended to and by who so that he/she is able to know exactly where to start as concerns a specific task. This just as the EMRs has a way of cutting costs and increasing effectiveness. This is because all information as concerns any patient is stored electronically and retrieved with ease when need arises, thus avoiding the possibility of confusing one’s medical data with another persons (Fins, 2008). This enables a medical practitioner to prescribe the right medicine to the right person while at the same time allowing for generation of information about the right bills for the client in accordance to the medical procedures and medication accorded to him or her. Other systems like the electronic health systems keep a full medical history of a patient. It keeps essential information that can be used by the doctor or any medical practitioner to offer quick and effective diagnosis of a patient. All healthcare reports about a certain patient are stored in this system including drugs prescribed to the patient every time he/she attends that healthcare facility. It is also inclusive of all test results of that particular patient as well as x-rays and the response of the patient towards a certain medication. All this information is essential for up to level health care treatment of any patient. It keeps off the agony of a patient for having to answer tedious questions about their past medical history every time they visit a healthcare facility, as information about them is stored electronically and retrieved on every visit. This medical history is updated time to time on the occasions that a client visits for the purpose of seeking for treatment. The use of electronic technology in healthcare systems has more pros than cons. This is because as enumerated above, it has advantages to both the client and the healthcare facility. The fact that it increases efficiency and effectiveness can not be underscored while at the same time reducing operating costs of the facility. Clients are served to their liking and while their medical record is kept safely and is retrieved during the time of need with a lot of ease (Kluge, 2001). One of the major disadvantages is that information about a patient can be copied maliciously and tampered with. If the entire system should break down, then volumes and volumes of information are lost. It would be a good thing if all the above system could be integrated into one piece. This will ease operation even more as all the operations are under one click of a ‘mouse’. It could also be improved in such a way that clients can access their information wherever and whenever they are. Reference Fins, J. (2008). Web of Care: How Will the Electronic Medical Record Change Medicine? The Hastings Center Report, Vol. 38, pp. 67-88 Kluge, E. (2001). The Ethics of Electronic Patient Record

Business Ethics Essay -- GCSE Business Marketing Coursework

Business Ethics The statement has been made that "ethics has no place in business" and the implications of this statement and its inferring characteristics provide a complex issue in the operation of national and multinational corporations. Because ethical decision making is often not as profitable as choices that do not embrace ethical elements, the perspective has emerged that the nature of an effective business mindset inherently brings about unethical behavior. In order to consider this statement and its implications, it is necessary to recognize the ethical decision-making processes of a number of companies, and reflect upon the fiscal, organizational and operational implications of ethical choices and then relate this process to the perceived outcomes if the opposite choices were made. As an element of this evaluation, it is also necessary to consider the nature of morality and the progression of moral underpinnings for business operations and the implications as companies expand into multinational arenas. Ethics can be described as: "the activity of examining one's moral standards or the moral standards of a society, and asking how these standards apply to our lives" (11). The application of ethics in business is generally perceived as the evaluation of individual and collective moral standards, a reflection of societal morality, and then the determination of business decisions that are not only based on the efficacy of business operations, but also on these moral standards. The problem that many corporations perceive when pursuing the application of ethics in business is that ethical choices are not always the most sound business decisions. For example, when the pharmaceutical corporatio... ...issue as a whole. Individuals have a moral responsibility to take ethical action, and there is no way of denying that corporations are made up of individuals attempting to make both business and ethical determinations. Business ethics, then, must focus not only on the issues related to preventing harm to others, but also taking action that negates the passive process of allowing harm to happen. In the example of Merck, the company pursued their ethical choice not because they would be causing harm if they did not make this determination, but because if they did not take this action, they would be allowing harm to occur (48). Though it cannot be expected that every company will take this kind of action, at the very least, corporations, both national and multinational, have to determine operational ethics that prevent them from causing harm to others.

Market Timing and Capital Structure for Baker and Wurgler

It is well known that firms are more likely to issue equity when their market values are high, relative to book and past market values, and to repurchase equity when their market values are low. We document that the resulting effects on capital structure are very persistent. As a consequence, current capital structure is strongly related to historical market values. The results suggest the theory that capital structure is the cumulative outcome of past attempts to time the equity market. Introduction â€Å"Equity market timing† refers to the practice of issuing shares at high prices and repurchasing shares at low prices. Equity market timing appears to be an important aspect of real corporate financial policy. In this paper, B&W ask how equity market timing effects capital structure and whether it has a short-run or long-run impact. The variation in market-to-book ratio is a proxy for manager’s perceptions of misevaluation. The main finding is that low leverage firms are those that raised funds when their market valuations were high (measured by the book-to-market ratio), while high leverage firms are those that raised funds when their market valuations were low. The influence of past market valuations in capital structure is economically significant and statistically robust. The influence of past market valuations on capital structure is also quite persistent, this means that they have a long-run impact. The tradeoff theory predicts that temporary fluctuations in the market-to-book ratio or any other variable should have temporary effects. The evidence however indicates long-term effects as well. The standard pecking-order theory implies that periods of high investment will push leverage higher toward a debt capacity, not lower as the results in this paper suggest. The theory of entrenched managers suggests that managers exploit existing investors ex post by not rebalancing the capital structure with debt, this may be an explanation of the findings in this paper. 1. Capital structure and past market valuations Individual financing decisions depend on market-to-book ratios. Does market-to-book affects capital structure through net equity issues as market timing implies? And does market-to-book has persistent effects that help to explain the cross section of leverage? Data and summary statistics. Table I shows that book leverage decreases sharply following the IPO. Over the next 10 years, it rises slightly, while market value leverage rises more strongly. The book leverage trend is an age effect, not a survival effect. Most notable is the sharp switch to debt finance in the year following in the IPO. Under B&W’s definitions for financing activity, the change in assets is equal to the sum of net debt issues, net equity issues, and newly retained earnings. The concurrent increase in equity issues is suggestive of market timing. Determinants of annual changes in leverage B&W document the net effect of market-to-book on the annual change in leverage. Then they decompose the change in leverage to examine whether the effects comes through net equity issues, as market timing implies. Three control variables are used that have been found to be correlated to leverage: Asset tangibility, profitability, and firm size. B&W regress each component (equity issues, debt issues, and newly retained earnings) of changes in leverage on the market-to-book ratio and other independent variables. This allows them to determine whether market-to-book affects leverage through net equity issues, as market timing implies. The effect of market-to-book on changes in leverage does indeed come through equity issues. Panel C shows that market-to-book is not strongly related to retained earnings, ruling out the possibility that market-to-book affects leverage because it forecasts earnings. The effect of profitability on changes in leverage arises primarily because of retained earnings. Firm size plays an important role at the time of the IPO. Determinants of leverage. If managers do not rebalance to some target leverage ratio, market timing may have persistent effects, and historical valuations will help to explain why leverage ratios differ. The relevant historical variation in market valuations is measured by the â€Å"external finance weighted-average† market-to-book ratio. This variable takes high values for firms that raised external finance when the market-to-book ratio was high and vice-versa. The intuitive motivation for this weighting scheme is that external financing events represent practical opportunities to change leverage. It therefore gives more weight to valuations that prevailed when significant external financing decisions were being made, whether those decisions ultimately went toward debt or equity. This weighted average is better than a set of lagged market-to-book ratios because it picks out, for each firm, precisely which lags (intervals) are likely to be the most relevant. Intuitively the weights correspond to times when capital structure was most likely to be changed. When firms go public, their capital structure reflects a number of factors, including market-to-book, asset tangibility, size, and research and development intensity. As firms age, the cross-section of leverage is more and more explained by past financing opportunities, as determined by the market-to-book ratio, and past opportunities to accumulate retained earnings, as determined by profitability. Historical within-firm variation in market-to-book, not current cross-firm variation, is more important in explaining the cross section of leverage. The results from Table III and IV show that the effect of historical valuations on leverage is large and separate from various effects documented in prior literature. Persistence So far two main results have been documented. First, high market valuations reduce leverage in the short run. Second, historically high market valuations are associated with lower leverage in the cross section. By measuring changes from the leverage prevailing in the year before the IPO, the dependent variable includes the effect of the IPO itself. This is useful because the IPO is a critical financing event known to be connected to market value. Historical market valuations have large and very persistent effects on capital structure. This effect is independent of various control variables. 2. Discussion Tradeoff theory In perfect and efficient markets capital structure is irrelevant. Some of the imperfections that lead to an optimal tradeoff are as follows: Higher taxes on dividends indicate more debt, higher non-debt tax shields indicate less debt, higher costs of financial distress indicate more equity, agency problems can call for more or less debt. The market-to-book ratio can be connected to several elements of the tradeoff theory but it is most commonly attached to costly financial distress. The key testable prediction of the tradeoff theory is that capital structure eventually adjusts to changes in the market-to-book ratio. However, evidence indicated that variation in the market-to-book ratio has a decades-long impact on capital structure. B&W’s results make the point that a considerable fraction of cross-sectional variation in leverage has nothing to do with an optimal leverage ratio. Pecking order theory In the pecking order theory there is no optimal capital structure. The static model predicts that managers will follow a pecking-order (internal, debt, equity). The pecking order theory regards the market-to-book ratio as a measure of investment opportunities. Periods of high investment opportunities will tend to push leverage higher toward a debt capacity. However, to the extent that high past market-to-book actually coincides with high past investments, B&W’s results suggest that such periods tend to push leverage lower. The dynamic version predicts a relationship between leverage and future investment opportunities. B&W’s results control for current market-to-book and show that leverage is much more strongly determined by past values of market-to-book. Managerial entrenchment theory High valuations and good investment opportunities facilitate equity finance, but at the same time allow managers to become entrenched. They may then refuse to raise debt to rebalance in later periods. Market timing theory Capital structure evolves as the cumulative outcome of past attempts to time the equity market. There are two versions of equity market timing. The first is a dynamic form with rational managers and investors and adverse selection costs that vary across firms or across time. Temporary fluctuations in the market-to-book ratio measure variations in adverse selection (information asymmetry). The second version of equity market timing involves irrational investors or managers and time-varying mispricing. If managers try to exploit too-extreme expectations, net equity issues will be positively related to market-to-book. The critical assumption is that markets need not be inefficient, managers may simply believe that they can time the market. 3. Conclusion A variety of evidence suggests that equity market timing is an important aspect of real financial policy. This evidence comes from analyses of actual financing decisions, analyses of long-run returns following equity issues and repurchases, analyses of realized and forecast earnings around equity issues, and surveys of managers. We find that fluctuations in market valuations have large effects on capital structure that persist for at least a decade. The most realistic explanation for the results is that capital structure is largely the cumulative outcome of past attempts to time the equity market.

Expectancy Theory

The expectancy theory by Victor Bloom is based on the believe that organizational employees act in a certain way based on the strength of an outcome and how attractive the outcome is to the individual. The theory contains three main relationships and when all three are maintained the desired behavior from the employee will be achieved. These three relationships are effort-performance (Expectant probability), performance-reward (Instrumentality probability) and rewards-personal goals (Valence).In the effort-performance relationship or expectancy the employee must believe that if they perform in a certain manner that they will indeed increase their performance and thus make goals obtainable. In order for the employee to actually believe that increase effort will lead to increase performance they must believe that the process is valid, that they have the tools and resources to achieve the goal and that the goal is meaningful. The goal can’t be without merit based on their knowled ge of the job and their past experiences.The performance-reward relationship or instrumentality hinges of the belief that if the employee does work harder and does meet the performance goal that they will receive a reward or a greater reward compared to others. The employee again needs to have trust in the reward system and the people who manage the processes and reward systems. The reward process should be transparent and fair. The rewards-personal relationship or valence is the value that the employee sees in obtaining the goals. This will be variable because different things motivate people.Paid time off motivate some, bonuses and or pay raises motivate others. Some employees simply are satisfied with being recognized and others seek promotion. The key element to the rewards-personal relationship is not that the employee is satisfied but the satisfactions meet their expectant level of satisfaction. (Expectancy Theory of Motivation, 2012) In the task’s given scenario there is plenty of evidence that the employees have little confidence in the thought of working hard and producing more has any positive affect on them. This is an excellent scenario to apply the expectancy theory.Based on the interviews of supervisor A’s employee by supervisor B’s supervisor there is lack of trust that work is rewarded at all, fairly, and the current reward system is not worth the trouble. The statement that the bonuses are not enough to make a difference in their pay after deductions and the statements that you have to be way underperforming to have a negative effect on your pay and over performance has no positive effect on pay confirm this. These opinions are obviously based on past experience of working with the audio product company.Supervisor A obviously must have the same attitudes as the people he supervises being that his group is underperforming and supervisor B is the person concerned and asking the questions on how to better the situation. There is also a statement that some employees believed they did not have the dexterity to perform the new process undermining the confidence in the new program. The company needs to do several things utilizing the expectancy theory. First there needs to be confidence in the new program that it is meaningful and the goals are obtainable.First for the employees with the issue of dexterity, there needs to be some education and assistance provided to those employees to evaluate what they can do to make it easier to perform the job. Maybe additional tools or resources are necessary. This education and assistance could even be provided by the employees that are doing well and excelling in the new process. The company should set common individual and team goals. The individual goals would motivate the employees and the team goals should motivate the supervisors. These goals need to be obtainable and enough of a challenge that the employee feels accomplishment when they meet them.There also shou ld be regular feedback about their performance. This addresses the expectancy part of the theory that if they work harder that it will increase their performance. Then to gain interest in the rewards, there needs to be an overhaul of the reward system itself. There needs to be variety in the rewards. A poll could be taken of the employees and ask them what would be fair rewards for met goals. The employer could take the majority opinion of the poll and offer the result as a reward or offer options of rewards either by individuals or by group.The rewards must be of value to the employee that is the bottom line. The company needs to have transparency in the new goal and reward program. That will make sure there is confidence and fairness in the reward program. Employees must see that the achievers are being rewarded while the underachievers are not. This tangible difference must be known and visible to reinforce that things are now different and effort is awarded. This aspect addresse s the instrumentality relationship aspect of the expectancy theory.To accommodate those employees that are motivated by recognition, individual rewards that include company wide recognition should be established in addition to the monetary or benefit rewards. Team recognition awards could also be established. This would create a little friendly competition while providing openly displayed performance numbers which in turn provides positive feedback for increased performance. By making sure that the reward system has value and makes the employee desire to make the goal and want the reward addresses the valence relationship of the theory.By giving the employees the skills and tools necessary to obtain goals and to have the employees’ confidence that there is an open and fair reward mechanism is vital for successful motivation of the workforce. It is of utmost importance that the employee feels that their increased effort will increase performance and the increased performance w ill result in meaningful expected rewards for them. Bibliography Expectancy Theory of Motivation. (2012, 11 4). Retrieved from Management Study Guide: http://www. managementstudyguide. com/expectancy-theory-motivation. htm Expectancy Theory Expectancy theory proposes that a person will decide to behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over other behaviors due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. [1] In essence, the motivation of the behavior selection is determined by the desirability of the outcome. However, at the core of the theory is the cognitive process of how an individual processes the different motivational elements. This is done before making the ultimate choice.The outcome is not the sole determining factor in making the decision of how to behave. [1] Expectancy theory is about the mental processes regarding choice, or choosing. It explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices. In the study of organizational behavior, expectancy theory is a motivation theory first proposed by Victor Vroom of the Yale School of Management. â€Å"This theory emphasizes the needs for organizations to relate rewards directly to per formance and to ensure that the rewards provided are those rewards deserved and wanted by the recipients. † [2] Victor H.Vroom (1964) defines motivation as a process governing choices among alternative forms of voluntary activities, a process controlled by the individual. The individual makes choices based on estimates of how well the expected results of a given behavior are going to match up with or eventually lead to the desired results. Motivation is a product of the individual’s expectancy that a certain effort will lead to the intended performance, the instrumentality of this performance to achieving a certain result, and the desirability of this result for the individual, known as valence. [3] Contents hide] 1 Author 2 Key elements 2. 1 Expectancy: Effort > Performance (E>P) 2. 2 Instrumentality: Performance > Outcome (P>O) 2. 3 Valence- V(R) 3 Current Research 3. 1 Management 3. 2 Computer Users 3. 3 Models of Teacher Expectancy Effects 4 Criticisms 5 Related The ories 6 Notes 7 Further reading [edit] Author In 1964, Vroom developed the Expectancy theory through his study of the motivations behind decision making. His theory is relevant to the study of management. Currently, Vroom is a John G. Searle Professor of Organization and Management at the Yale University School of Management. 4] [edit] Key elements The Expectancy Theory of Motivation explains the behavioral process of why individuals choose one behavioral option over another. It also explains how they make decisions to achieve the end they value. Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). 5] Three components of Expectancy theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence 1. Expectancy: Effort > Perform ance (E>P) 2. Instrumentality: Performance > Outcome (P>O) 3. Valence- V(R) [edit] Expectancy: Effort > Performance (E>P) Expectancy is the belief that one's effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P) goals. Usually based on an individual's past experience, self-confidence (self efficacy), and the perceived difficulty of the performance standard or goal.Factors associated with the individual's Expectancy perception are self efficacy, goal difficulty, and control. Self efficacy is the person’s belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. Goal difficulty happens when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult are most likely to lead to low expectancy perceptions. Control is one's perceived control over performance. In order for expectancy to be high, individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. edit] Instrumentality: Performance > Outcome (P>O) Inst rumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances given. Factors associated with the individual's instrumentality for outcomes are trust, control and policies. If individuals trust their superiors, they are more likely to believe their leaders promises.When there is a lack of trust in leadership, people often attempt to control the reward system. When individuals believe they have some kind of control over how, when, and why rewards are distributed, Instrumentality tends to increase. Formalized written policies impact the individuals' instrumentality perceptions. Instrumentality is increased when formalized policies associates rewards to performance. [edit] Valence- V(R) Valence:[6] the value the individual places on the rewards based on their needs, goals, val ues and Sources of Motivation.Factors associated with the individual's valence for outcomes are values, needs, goals, preferences and Sources of Motivation Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular outcome. The valence refers the value the individual personally places on the rewards. -1 >0> +1 -1= avoiding the outcome 0= indifferent to the outcome +1=welcomes the outcome In order for the valence to be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. Expectancy Theory of motivation can help managers understand how individuals make decisions regarding various behavioral alternatives.The model below shows the direction of motivation, when behavior is energized: Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest amount of motivational force (MF). Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognitions) that represent an individual's perce ption of the likelihood that effort will lead to performance that will lead to the desired outcomes. These perceptions represent the individual’s subjective reality, and may or may not bear close resemblance to actual probabilities.These perceptions are tempered by the individual's experiences (learning theory), observations of others (social learning theory), and self-perceptions. Valence is rooted in an individual’s value system. One example of how this theory can be applied is related to evaluating an employee’s job performance. One’s performance is a function of the multiplicative relationship between one’s motivation and ability [P=f (M*A)] [1] Motivation can be expressed as [M=f (V*E)],[7] or as a function of valence times expectancy.In layman’s terms, this is how much someone is invested in something along with how probable or achievable the individual believes the goal is. [edit] Current Research [edit] Management Victor Vroomâ€℠¢s expectancy theory is one such management theory focused on motivation. According to Holdford and Lovelace-Elmore (2001, p. 8), Vroom asserts, â€Å"intensity of work effort depends on the perception that an individual’s effort will result in a desired outcome†. Vroom suggests that â€Å"for a person to be motivated, effort, performance and motivation must be linked† (Droar, 2006, p. 2).Three factors direct the intensity of effort put forth by an individual, according to Vroom; expectancy, instrumentality, and preferences (Holdford and Lovelace-Elmore, 2001). In order to enhance the performance-outcome tie, managers should use systems that tie rewards very closely to performance. Managers also need to ensure that the rewards provided are deserved and wanted by the recipients. [8] In order to improve the effort-performance tie, managers should engage in training to improve their capabilities and improve their belief that added effort will in fact lead to better performance. 8] – Emphasizes self-interest in the alignment of rewards with employee's wants. – Emphasizes the connections among expected behaviors, rewards and organizational goals Expectancy Theory, though well known in work motivation literature, is not as familiar to scholars or practitioners outside that field. [edit] Computer Users Lori Baker-Eveleth and Robert Stone, University of Idaho, conducted an empirical study on 154 faculty members’ behavioral intentions/responses to use of new software.The antecedents with previous computer experience ease of the system, and administrator support for they are linked to behavioral intentions to use the software through self-efficacy and outcome expectancy. Self-efficacy and outcome expectancy impacts a person’s effect and behavior separately. Self-efficacy is the belief a person has that they possess the skills and abilities to successfully accomplish something. Outcome expectancy is the belief a person has when they accomplish the task, a desired outcome is attained.Self-efficacy has a direct impact on outcome expectancy and has a larger effect than outcome expectancy. [9] Employees will accept technology if they believe the technology is a benefit to them. If an employee is mandated to use the technology, the employees will use it but may feel it is not useful. On the other hand, when an employee is not mandated, the employee may be influenced by other factors that it should be used. The self-efficacy theory can be applied to predicting and perceiving an employee’s belief for computer use (Bandura, 1986; Bates & Khasawneh, 2007).This theory associates an individual’s cognitive state affective behavioral outcomes (Staples, Hulland, & Higgins, 1998). Motivation, performance, and feelings of failure are examples of self-efficacy theory expectations. The following constructs of the self-efficacy theory that impact attitudes and intentions to perform: past experience or mas tery with the task, vicarious experience performing the task, emotional or physiological arousal regarding the task, and social persuasion to perform the task. edit] Models of Teacher Expectancy Effects Jere Brophy and Thomas Good (1970, 1974) provided a comprehensive model of how teacher expectations could influence children's achievement. Their model posits that teachers' expectations indirectly affect children's achievement: â€Å"teacher expectations could also affect student outcomes indirectly by leading to differential teacher treatment of students that would condition student attitudes, expectations, and behavior† (Brophy, 1983, p. 639). The model includes the following sequence.Teachers form differential expectations for students early in the school year. Based on these expectations, they behave differently toward different students, and as a result of these behaviors the students begin to understand what the teacher expects from them. If students accept the teachers ' expectations and behavior toward them then they will be more likely to act in ways that confirm the teacher's initial expectations. This process will ultimately affect student achievement so that teachers' initial expectancies are confirmed. [10]In discussing work related to this model, Brophy (1983) made several important observations about teacher expectation effects. First and foremost, he argued that most of the beliefs teachers hold about student are accurate, and so their expectations usually reflect students' actual performance levels. As a result, Brophy contended that selffulfilling prophecy effects have relatively weak effects on student achievement, changing achievement 5% to 10%, although he did note that such effects usually are negative expectation effects rather than positive effects.Second, he pointed out that various situational and individual difference factors influence the extent to which teacher expectations will act as self-fulfilling prophecies. For instance , Brophy stated that expectancy effects may be larger in the early elementary grades, because teachers have more one-on-one interactions with students then, as they attempt to socialize children into the student role. In the upper elementary grades more whole-class teaching methods are used, which may minimize expectation effects.Some evidence supports this claim; expectancy effects in Rosenthal and Jacobson's (1968) study were strongest during the earlier grades. Raudenbush's (1984) meta-analysis of findings from different teacher expectancy studies in which expectancies were induced by giving teachers artificial information about children's intelligence showed that expectancy effects were stronger in Grades 1 and 2 than in Grades 3 through Grade 6, especially when the information was given to teachers during the first few weeks of school.These findings are particularly relevant because they show a form of the expectancy theory and how teachers have certain expectations of students and how they treat the students differently because of those expectations. [10] [edit] Criticisms Some of the critics of the expectancy model were Graen (1969) Lawler (1971), Lawler and Porter (1967), and Porter and Lawler (1968). [11] Their criticisms of the theory were based upon the expectancy model being too simplistic in nature; these critics started making adjustments to Vroom’s model.Edward Lawler claims that the simplicity of expectancy theory is deceptive because it assumes that if an employer makes a reward, such as a financial bonus or promotion, enticing enough, employees will increase their productivity to obtain the reward. [12] However, this only works if the employees believe the reward is beneficial to their immediate needs. For example, a $2 increase in salary may not be desirable to an employee if the increase pushes her into a tax bracket in which she believes her net pay is actually reduced, which is actually impossible in the United States with marginal tax brackets.Similarly, a promotion that provides higher status but requires longer hours may be a deterrent to an employee who values evening and weekend time with his children. In addition to that, if anyone in the armed forces or security agencies is promoted, there is a must condition for such promotions, that they he/she will be transferred to other locations. In such cases, if the new place is far from their permanent residence, where their family is residing, they will not be motivated by such promotions, and the results will be other way round.Because, the outcome, which this reward (promotion) will yield, may not be valued by those who are receiving it. Lawler’s new proposal for expectancy theory is not against Vroom’s theory. Lawler argues that since there have been a variety of developments of expectancy theory since its creation in 1964; the expectancy model needs to be updated. Lawler’s new model is based on four claims. [13] First, whenever there are a number of outcomes, individuals will usually have a preference among those outcomes.Two, there is a belief on the part of that individual that their action(s) will achieve the outcome they desire. Three, any desired outcome was generated by the individual’s behavior. Finally, the actions generated by the individual were generated by the preferred outcome and expectation of the individual. Instead of just looking at expectancy and instrumentality, W. F. Maloney and J. M. McFillen [13] found that expectancy theory could explain the motivation of those individuals who were employed by the construction industry. For nstance, they used worker expectancy and worker instrumentality. Worker expectancy is when supervisors create an equal match between the worker and their job. Worker instrumentality is when an employee knows that any increase in their performance leads to achieving their goal. In a chapter entitled â€Å"On the Origins of Expectancy Theory† published in G reat Minds in Management by Ken G. Smith and Michael A. Hitt, Vroom himself agreed with some of these criticisms and stated that he felt that the theory should be expanded to include research conducted since the original publication of his book.